When Muslims are not Muslims: The Ahmadiyya Community and the Discourse on Heresy in Indonesia

ABSTRACT

When Muslims are not Muslims:
The Ahmadiyya Community and the Discourse on Heresy in Indonesia

by
Ahmad Najib Burhani

The concepts of orthodoxy and heresy mostly refer to the politics of domination between competing groups to determine which one shall be considered the bearer of the ‘correct’ beliefs. The winning party would claim its teachings orthodox, while the losing party would be condemned as heretics. The concept of orthodoxy-heresy, therefore, does not imply whether a certain belief system is true or false. The orthodoxy-heresy nexus is a common phenomenon in any society and embedded in the history of all religions. The problem is whether or not a certain society allows a place for ‘heretical’ belief system. If they do not accept it, this raises significant questions: What is the limit of orthodoxy where dissent can still be tolerated? How are those who have dissenting belief systems treated? What is the stance of state power in this theological issue, staying neutral or taking sides with a certain belief system?

To answer these questions, this thesis studies the Ahmadiyya community, often considered the most influential heretical group in Islam, and employs an in-depth qualitative case study. To give various perspectives on their plight, this thesis has focused on three locations: Cikeusik, Manis Lor, and Asrama Transito. Data for this study were collected through multiple sources. They include personal observations; archival records; interviews; audiovisual material; literature written by prominent figures of the Ahmadiyya; documents from both the Ahmadiyya and its opponents; fatwās from certain Muslim organizations; government decrees; and reports from human rights organizations. Together, the data allow for a detailed description of the distinctive beliefs of the Ahmadiyya, the development of this community, the various types of opposition to this community, the matrix of the persecution, and the response of the Ahmadiyya to persecution.

The results of this research show that the alliance between religious authority and certain state power has often become an underlying factor behind the persecution of ‘heretical’ groups. The religious authority, for instance, issues a fatwā that gives an ideological justification for opposing –or further, persecuting-- allegedly heretical groups. The state bans religious groups deemed heretical or prohibits the public airing of certain teachings deemed heterodox and allows for the persecution of those groups, for instance, when the state indirectly shares its sovereignty with vigilante groups that appoint themselves as religious police and enforcers of the fatwā.


Table of Contents
Acknowledgements - iv
Vita of Ahmad Najib Burhani - x
Abstract - xiv
Abbreviations - xvi
Glossary - xix
Transliteration - xxii
Table of Contents - xxiii

Chapter 1- Introduction - 1

Chapter 2 - The Ahmadiyya: Birth, Organization, and Distinctive Beliefs - 30
A. Establishment and Organization - 31
B. Distinctive and Controversial Beliefs - 34
B.1. Ghulam Ahmad’s Claim of Prophethood - 35
B.2. Ghulam Ahmad as the Messiah - 40
B.3. Opposition to Jihad - 47
B.4. The System of Chanda - 51
B.5. The Doctrine of Caliphate - 56
B.6. The Doctrine of Intra-Religious Marriage - 60
B.7. Prohibition of Praying behind non-Ahmadi Imāms - 63
C. Conclusion - 65

Chapter 3 - The Ahmadiyya in Indonesia: Early History, Development, and Contributions - 67
A. Introduction - 67
B. The Lahore Ahmadiyya and Islamic Reform in Early 20th Century Indonesia - 70
C. The Qadiani Ahmadiyya: Invitation, Propagation, and Conversion - 79
D. The Development of the Ahmadiyya in Indonesia - 92
E. The Contributions of the Ahmadiyya to Indonesian Islam - 99
E.1. The Islamic Revivalism in Indonesia: Dutch-educated vs. Arab-educated Scholars - 100
E.2. Missionary Activities and the Study of Comparative Religion - 112
E.3. The Translation of the Qur’an into Indonesian Languages - 126
F. The Appeals of the Qadiani Ahmadiyya in Indonesia - 140
F.1. A Close-Knit Organization - 143
F.2. An Ethic and Moral Movement - 147
F.3. A Spiritual and Mystical Movement - 151
G. Conclusion - 155

Chapter 4 - Sustaining Orthodoxy: Fatwās and Government Decrees on the Ahmadiyya in Indonesia - 162
A. Introduction - 162
B. The Limits of Orthodoxy in Islam - 163
C. Classical Discourse on the Boundaries of Islam - 172
D. The Place of the Ahmadiyya in Islamic Orthodoxy - 179
D.1. Fatwās as a Source to Sustain Orthodoxy - 180
D.2. Declaring Heretics Apostates or Non-Believers - 191
E. Sustaining Orthodoxy through Government Decrees and Regulations - 199
F. Conclusion - 202

Chapter 5 - The Opposition and Persecution of the Ahmadiyya in Indonesia - 204
A. Introduction - 204
B. Historical Opposition to the Ahmadiyya - 205
C. Religious Radicalization and the Persecution of the Ahmadiyya after 1998  - 20
C.1. Discursive Opposition - 222
C.2. Violent Opposition - 238
C.3. Mass Opposition - 251
D. The Ideological Justification and Religious Symbolism in the Attacks - 253
D.1. Jihad Discourse and Justifying Attacks - 254
D.2. Militia and Vigilante Groups as ‘Sovereign Bodies’ - 258
D.3. Tensions between Divine Law and State Law - 261
E. The Forms of Oppositions and Foreign Influence - 265
E.1. Arab Inspiration in the MUI Fatwās - 266
E.2. Pakistan as a Model for Legal Treatment - 269
E.3. Fierce and Violent Opposition - 274
F. Conclusion - 277

Chapter 6 - Living as Persecuted People: The Ahmadiyya Community as Homo Sacer - 280
A. Introduction - 280
B. Two Main Cases of Persecution - 282
B.1. Asrama Transito as a Refugee Camp-like for the Ahmadis - 283
B.2. Lynching the Ahmadis in Umbulan Village, Cikeusik - 293
C. The Position of the Ahmadiyya in Muslim Society - 298
D. The Ahmadiyya Community as Homo Sacer - 311
E. Conclusion - 330

Chapter 7 - Bearing the Unbearable: Persecution in the Framework of Ahmadiyya Theology and Experiences - 332
A. Introduction - 332
B. Persecution and Suffering in the Ahmadiyya Theology - 334
B.1. Proof that Ghulam Ahmad is the Promised Messiah - 335
B.2. Proof of the Nubuwwa - 341
B.3. Test of Faith and Medium of Education - 345
C. Politics of Non-Retaliation - 350
D. Abdul Latif as Martyrdom Paradigm - 355
E. Theology of Hope: Waiting vs. Coming - 360
F. Conclusion - 363

Chapter 8 - Conclusion - 367

References - 377
Appendices - 413

Available at this link (http://alexandria.ucsb.edu/catalog/adrl:f3707zhx)